Authoritarianism and National Identity: The Legacy of Ayub Khan's Social Policies in Pakistan

Abstract

The Ayub Khan regime (1958–1969) in Pakistan bequeathed a dual legacy, including sweeping social and economic reforms and authoritarianism. Ayub Khan's period witnessed the Green Revolution, industrialization, and the growth of infrastructure, which accelerated the economy of Pakistan. His autocratic and centralized regime stifled political opposition, excluded regional voices, and institutionalized the military's role in politics. His Basic Democracies system, intended for local self-government, centralized power and did not express the will of the electorate, as in the disputed 1965 presidential election. Ayub's policies also encouraged provincial nationalism, especially in East Pakistan, where economic disparities, political exclusion, and cultural grievances fuelled calls for autonomy and, eventually, the secession of East Pakistan in 1971. The emergence of Bengali nationalism, personified in the Six-Point Movement, underscored the failure of centralized rule to provide space for regional ambitions. Ayub's education policy, substituting traditional history with Social Studies, intended to promote national unity and Islamic identity but excluded regional histories and cultures, further marginalizing ethnic groups. Historians still argue over Ayub's legacy, with some hailing his modernization and others condemning his authoritarianism and its long-term effects on Pakistan's democratic evolution. The era established the precedent for military intervention in politics and underscored the difficulty of ruling a plural society, leaving a lasting impact on Pakistan's political and cultural life.